The Roman Catholic Church, officially known as the Catholic Church,[1][2] is the world's largest Christian church, representing over half of all Christians and one-sixth of the world's population.[3][4] It is made up of one Western church (the Latin Rite) and 22 Eastern Catholic churches, and is divided into 2,782 jurisdictional areas around the world.[5] The Church looks to the Bishop of Rome (the pope), currently Pope Benedict XVI, as their highest visible authority in matters of faith, morals, and Church governance.[6][7] The Church community is composed of an ordained ministry and the laity.[8] Numerous religious communities exist within the Church and are composed of members from each of these groups.[8]
The primary mission of the Catholic Church is to spread the message of Jesus Christ, found in the four Gospels, and to administer sacraments that aid the spiritual growth of its members.[9] To further its mission, the Church operates social programs and institutions throughout the world. These include schools, universities, hospitals, missions, and shelters, as well as Catholic Relief Services and Catholic Charities that help the poor, families, the elderly, and the sick.[10][11]
The Catholic Church and some historians assert that, via Apostolic Succession, it is the Christian community founded by Jesus in his act of consecrating Saint Peter.[12][13] Believing itself to be preserved by the Holy Spirit from error in doctrinal matters, the Church has defined its doctrines through various ecumenical councils, following the example set by the first Apostles in the Council of Jerusalem.[14][15][16] Catholic faith is summarized in the Nicene Creed and detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.[17] Formal Catholic worship is ordered by the liturgy, which is regulated by Church authority. The celebration of the Eucharist, one of seven Church sacraments and a key part of every Catholic Mass, is considered the center of Catholic worship.[18]
The history of the Catholic Church is virtually inseparable from the history of Western civilization. The Church has affected and shaped the lives and beliefs of Christians and non-Christians alike for almost 2,000 years.[19]
In the 11th century, the Eastern Church and the Western Church split, largely over disagreements regarding Papal primacy.[20] Eastern churches which maintained or later re-established communion with Rome now form the Eastern Catholic Churches. In the 16th century, partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Church engaged in a substantial process of reform and renewal, known as the Counter-Reformation.[21]
Although the Catholic Church believes that it is the one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church founded by Jesus, the Church acknowledges that the Holy Spirit can make use of Christian communities separated from itself to bring people to salvation, and that Catholics are called by the Holy Spirit to work for unity or ecumenism among all Christians.[22][23]
Modern challenges facing the Church include the rise of secularism, and controversy over its opposition to abortion, contraception, and euthanasia.[24]
Origin and mission
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The Catholic Church traces its founding to Jesus and the Twelve Apostles and sees the bishops of the Church as the successors of the apostles, and the pope in particular as the successor of Peter, leader of the apostles.[25][26] Catholics cite Jesus' words in the Gospel of Matthew to support this view: "... you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church, and the gates of the netherworld shall not prevail against it. I will give you the keys to the kingdom of heaven. Whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven; whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven".[7][27] According to church belief, the coming of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles in an event Christians call Pentecost brought this promised "church" fully into the world.[26] Scholars such as emeritus Fellow and former dean of Peterhouse, Cambridge, Edward Norman agree that the Church was founded by Jesus during his earthly life and believe the historical record reveals that it was considered a Christian doctrinal authority from the beginning.[13] Others like University of Cambridge history professor Eamon Duffy, caution that the insufficient number of clear written records surviving from the early years of Christianity make such precision difficult to confirm. Dismissing a letter from Pope Clement I dated to the year 95 that other historians cite as evidence of a presiding cleric,[28] Duffy questions the concept of apostolic succession and doubts that there was a ruling bishop in the Roman church in the first century.[29] Calling "suspiciously tidy" the first historical document to list the Roman bishops back to Saint Peter which was supplied by Irenaeus in the second century, Duffy states, "there is no sure way to settle on a date by which the office of ruling bishop had emerged in Rome, and so to name the first pope, but the process was certainly complete by the time of Anicetus in the mid-150s, when Polycarp, the aged bishop of Smyrna, visited Rome, and he and Anicetus debated amicably the question of the date of Easter".[30]
The Church believes that its mission is founded upon Jesus' biblical command to his followers to spread the faith across the world:[13] "Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you: and Lo, I am with you always, until the close of the age".[31][32][33] Pope Benedict XVI summarized the Church's mission as a three-fold responsibility which includes proclaiming the word of God, celebrating the sacraments, and exercising the ministry of charity. He states that these duties presuppose each other and are inseparable.[34] The Church therefore administers social programs throughout the world. Through Catholic Relief Services, Catholic Charities, Catholic schools, universities, hospitals, shelters, and ministries to the poor, as well as ministries to families, the elderly and the marginalized, the Church applies the tenets of Catholic social teaching and tends to the corporal and spiritual needs of others.[11]
Beliefs
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The Catholic Church is a trinitarian Christian church whose beliefs are detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.[17][35] The Nicene Creed sets out the main principles of Catholic Christian belief.[36] This creed is recited at Sunday Masses and is the core statement of belief in many other Christian churches as well.[36][37] Catholic teachings have been refined and clarified by major councils of the Church, convened by Church leaders at important points throughout history.[16] The first such council, the Council of Jerusalem was convened by the apostles around the year 50.[15] The most recent was Vatican II, which closed in 1965.
The Catholic Church believes that it is guided by the Holy Spirit, and that it is protected by divine revelation from falling into doctrinal error. It bases this belief on biblical promises that Jesus made to his apostles.[14] In the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus tells Peter, "... the gates of the netherworld shall not prevail against" the church,[27] and in the Gospel of John, Jesus states, "I have much more to tell you, but you cannot bear it now. But when he comes, the Spirit of truth, he will guide you to all truth".[38][39][40] According to the Church, the Holy Spirit reveals God's truth through Sacred Scripture, Sacred Tradition and the Magisterium. For Catholics, the books of the Bible that comprise their Sacred Scripture consist of the Greek version of the Old Testament known as the Septuagint;[41] and the New Testament writings found in the Codex Vaticanus and listed in Athanasius' Thirty-Ninth Festal Letter.[42] Sacred Tradition consists of those beliefs handed down through the Church since the time of the Apostles.[40] Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition are collectively known as the deposit of faith. This is in turn interpreted by the Magisterium, or the teaching authority of the Church. The Magisterium includes infallible pronouncements of the pope,[43] pronouncements of ecumenical councils, and those of the college of bishops acting in union with the pope to condemn false interpretations of scripture or define truths.[43]
According to the Catechism, Christ instituted seven sacraments and entrusted them to the Church.[44] These are Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, the Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders and Holy Matrimony. They are vehicles through which God's grace is said to flow into all those who receive them with the proper disposition.[45] The Church encourages individuals to engage in adequate preparation before receiving certain sacraments.[46] Different liturgical traditions or rites exist throughout the worldwide Church that reflect "particular expressions characterized by the culture".[47] These are the Latin rite (most commonly used), the Byzantine rite, the Alexandrian or Coptic, Syriac, Armenian, Maronite, and Chaldean rites. Because of this diversity, some variations exist in the liturgical practices of administering the sacraments within the different rites yet all hold the same beliefs.[47]
The beliefs of other Christian denominations differ from those of Catholics in varying degrees. Eastern Orthodox belief differs mainly with regard to papal infallibility, the filioque clause and the immaculate conception of Mary, but is otherwise quite similar.[48][49] Protestant churches vary in their beliefs, but they generally differ from Catholics regarding the authority of the pope and church tradition, as well as the role of Mary and the saints, the role of the priesthood, and issues pertaining to grace, good works and salvation.[50] The five solas were one attempt to express these differences.
God the Father, original sin, and Baptism
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Main article: Original sin
The central statement of Catholic faith, the Nicene Creed, begins, "We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all that is, seen and unseen." Thus, Catholics believe that God is not a part of nature, but that he created nature and all that exists. He is viewed as a loving and caring God who is active both in the world and in people's lives.[51] He desires his creatures to love him and to love one another.[52][53] Before the creation of mankind, however, God made spiritual beings called angels. In an event known as the "fall of the angels", a number of them chose to rebel against God and his reign.[54] The leader of this rebellion has been given many names including "Lucifer", "Satan" and the devil. The sin of pride, considered one of seven deadly sins, is attributed to Satan for desiring to be God's equal.[55] A fallen angel tempted the first humans, Adam and Eve, who then committed the original sin which brought suffering and death into the world. This event, known as the Fall of Man, left humans separated from their original state of intimacy with God, a separation that can persist beyond death.[56][57] The Catechism states that "the account of the fall in Genesis 3 uses figurative language, but affirms ... a deed that took place at the beginning of the history of man" resulting in "a deprivation of original holiness and justice ..." that makes each person "subject to ignorance, suffering, and the dominion of death: and inclined to sin ..."[54] People can be cleansed from this original sin and all personal sins through Baptism.[58] This sacramental act of cleansing admits one as a full member of the natural and supernatural Church and is only conferred once in a person's lifetime.[58]
Jesus, sin, and Penance
In the messianic texts of the Jewish Tanakh, which make up much of the Christian Old Testament, God promised to send his people a savior.[59] The Church believes that this savior was Jesus whom John the Baptist called "the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world".[60] The Nicene Creed refers to Jesus as "the only begotten son of God, ... one in being with the Father. Through him all things were made." In a supernatural event called the Incarnation, Catholics believe that God came down from heaven for our salvation, became man through the power of the Holy Spirit and was born of a virgin Jewish girl named Mary. They believe that Jesus' mission on earth included giving people his word and example to follow, as recorded in the four Gospels.[61] The Church teaches that following the example of Jesus helps believers to grow more like him, and therefore to true love, freedom, and the fullness of life.[62][63] Sinning is the opposite of following Jesus, robbing people of their resemblance to God while turning their souls away from God's love.[64] People can sin by failing to obey the Ten Commandments, failing to love God, and failing to love other people. Some sins are more serious than others, ranging from lesser, venial sins, to grave, mortal sins that sever a person's relationship with God.[65][64] Through the passion of Jesus and his crucifixion, it is taught that all people have an opportunity for forgiveness and freedom from sin, and so can be reconciled to God.[59][66]
Since Baptism can only be received once, the sacrament of Penance is the principal means by which Catholics may obtain forgiveness for subsequent sin and receive God's grace and assistance not to sin again. This is based on Jesus' words to his disciples in the Gospel of John 20:21–23.[67] A penitent confesses his sins to a priest who may then offer advice or impose a particular penance to be performed. The penitent then prays an act of contrition and the priest administers absolution, formally forgiving the person of his sins.[68] A priest is forbidden under penalty of excommunication to reveal any matter heard under the seal of confession. Penance helps prepare Catholics before they can licitly receive the Holy Spirit in the sacraments of Confirmation and the Eucharist.[69][70]
Holy Spirit and Confirmation
A stained glass window in St. Peter's Basilica depicts the Holy Spirit as a dove, a common motif in Christian art, referencing John the Baptist's proclamation that he saw the Holy Spirit descend upon Jesus at his baptism "like a dove".
Jesus told his apostles that after his death and resurrection he would send them the "Advocate", the "holy Spirit", who "will teach you everything and remind you of all that (I) told you".[71][72] In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus tells his disciples "If you then, who are evil, know how to give good gifts to your children, how much more will the heavenly Father give the Holy Spirit to those who ask him!"[73] The Nicene Creed states that the Holy Spirit is one with God the Father and God the Son (Jesus) thus, for Catholics, receiving the Holy Spirit is receiving God, the source of all that is good.[74] Catholics formally ask for and receive the Holy Spirit through the sacrament of Confirmation. Sometimes called the sacrament of Christian maturity, Confirmation is believed to bring an increase and deepening of the grace received at Baptism.[73] Spiritual graces or gifts of the Holy Spirit can include wisdom to see and follow God's plan, right judgment, love for others, courage in witnessing the faith, knowledge, reverence, and rejoicing in the presence of God.[75] The corresponding fruits of the Holy Spirit are love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self control.[75] To be licitly confirmed, a person must be in a state of grace, which means that they cannot be conscious of having committed a mortal sin. They must also have prepared spiritually for the sacrament, chosen a sponsor or godparent for spiritual support, and selected a saint to be their special patron and intercessor.[73] Infant baptism in the Eastern rites is immediately followed by the reception of Confirmation and the Eucharist.[76]
Church, works of mercy, and Anointing of the Sick
Catholics believe that the Church is the continuing presence of Jesus on earth.[77] Jesus told his disciples "Remain in me, as I remain in you ... I am the vine, you are the branches".[78] Thus, for Catholics, the term "Church" refers not merely to a building or even to the organizational hierarchy but first and foremost to the people of God who abide in Jesus and form the different parts of his spiritual body.[33][79] Catholic belief holds that the Church exists simultaneously on earth (Church militant), in purgatory (Church suffering), and in heaven (Church triumphant); thus Mary, the mother of Jesus, and the other saints are alive and part of the living Church.[80] This unity of the Church in heaven and on earth is called the "communion of the saints".[81][82] Although the Catholic Church believes and teaches that it is the one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church founded by Jesus,[83] it also believes that the Holy Spirit can make use of other churches to bring people to salvation.[26] In its apostolic constitution, the Church acknowledges that the Holy Spirit is active in Christian churches and communities separated from itself, and that Catholics are called by the Holy Spirit to work for unity among all Christians.[22]
Catholic social teaching is based on the teaching of Jesus and commits Catholics to the welfare of others. Although the Catholic Church operates numerous social ministries throughout the world, individual Catholics are also required to practice spiritual and corporal works of mercy. Corporal works of mercy include feeding the hungry, welcoming strangers, immigrants or refugees, clothing the naked, taking care of the sick and visiting those in prison. Spiritual works require the Catholic to share their knowledge with others, to give advice to those who need it, comfort those who suffer, have patience, forgive those who hurt them, give correction to those who need it, and pray for the living and the dead.[11] The sacrament of Anointing of the Sick, however, is performed by a priest, who will anoint with oil the head and hands of the ill person and pray a special prayer for them while laying on hands.[84]
Final judgment and afterlife
The Nicene Creed ends with, "We look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come." Accordingly, the Church teaches that each soul will appear before the judgment seat of Christ immediately after death and receive a particular judgment based on the deeds of their earthly life.[85] Chapter 25:35–46 of the Gospel of Matthew underpins the Catholic belief that a day will also come when Jesus will sit in a universal judgment of all mankind.[11][86] The final judgment will bring an end to human history. It will also mark the beginning of a new heaven and earth in which righteousness dwells and God will reign forever.[87]
There are three states of afterlife in Catholic belief. Heaven is a time of glorious union with God and a life of unspeakable joy that lasts forever.[85] Purgatory is a temporary place for the purification of souls who, although saved, are not free enough from sin to enter directly into heaven. It is a state requiring penance and purgation of sin through God's mercy aided by the prayers of others.[85] Finally, those who freely chose a life of sin and selfishness, were not sorry for their sins and had no intention of changing their ways go to hell, an everlasting separation from God. The Church teaches that no one is condemned to hell without freely deciding to reject God and his love.[85] He predestines no one to hell and no one can determine whether anyone else has been condemned.[85] Catholicism teaches that God's mercy is such that a person can repent even at the point of death and be saved, like the good thief who was crucified next to Jesus.[85][88]
Prayer and worship
In the Catholic Church, a distinction is made between the formal, public liturgy and other prayers or devotions. The liturgy is regulated by Church authority and consists of the Eucharist and Mass, the other sacraments, and the Liturgy of the Hours. All Catholics are expected to participate in the liturgical life of the Church but individual or communal prayer and devotions, while encouraged, are a matter of personal preference.
The Church provides a set of precepts that every Catholic is expected to follow.[89] These set a minimum standard for personal prayer and require the Catholic to attend Mass on Sundays, confess sins at least once a year, receive the Eucharist at least during Easter season, observe days of fasting and of abstinence from meat as established by the Church, and help provide for the Church's needs.[89]
Mass, Eucharist, and liturgical year
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At the Last Supper, Catholics believe that Jesus ratified a New Covenant by instituting the sacrament of the Eucharist.[90] Similar variations on the words of institution are found in the three synoptic Gospels of Matthew,[91] Mark,[92] and Luke,[93] and I Corinthians;[94]"Then he took the bread, said the blessing, broke it, and gave it to them, saying, "This is my body, which will be given for you; do this in memory of me".[95] "Then he took a cup, gave thanks, and gave it to them, saying, "Drink from it, all of you, for this is my blood of the covenant, which will be shed on behalf of many for the forgiveness of sins."[90][96] The New Covenant in Jesus' Blood, according to Catholics, is continually celebrated and renewed in the Eucharist.[90] This sacrament, celebrated at each Mass, is considered the center of Catholic worship because it represents Jesus himself.[97]
The celebration of the Mass in the Eastern Catholic Churches is termed Divine Liturgy. Variations in this Liturgy between the different Eastern Churches reflect different cultural traditions. The ordinary form of the Mass in the Latin rite or the Mass of Paul VI, is most often celebrated in the vernacular and separated into two parts. The first, called Liturgy of the Word, consists of readings from the Old and New Testament, a Gospel passage and the priest's homily or explanation of one of those passages.[98] The second part, called Liturgy of the Eucharist is the celebration of the Eucharist.[98] Catholics believe that the bread and wine brought to the altar are changed through the power of the Holy Spirit into the true Body and the true Blood of Christ through transubstantiation.[99] The main elements of this mass are almost identical in form to those described in some of the earliest Christian writings.[100][101]
The extraordinary form of the Mass is also known as the Tridentine or Traditional Latin Mass. This Mass was codified by the Council of Trent to reaffirm traditional Catholic teaching that the Mass is the same sacrifice of Calvary offered in a non-bloody manner[102] as opposed to Protestant belief that the Mass is not an actual sacrifice. Although it was superseded by the vernacular as the primary form of the Mass, it was never forbidden after the reforms of the Second Vatican Council; it had been offered by an Indult since Pope John Paul II's 1988 motu proprio, Ecclesia Dei[103] and can now be said by any Roman rite priest according to Pope Benedict XVI's 2007 Motu Proprio, Summorum Pontificum.[104]
Because the Church teaches that Christ is fully present in the Eucharist,[105] there are strict rules about its celebration and reception. The ingredients of the bread and wine used in the mass are specified, and a fast of one hour prior to receiving Communion is in effect.[106] Only Catholics who are in a state of grace are admitted to communion; anyone who is in a state of mortal sin must not receive the Eucharist without having received absolution through the sacrament of Penance.[106] According to Church belief, receiving the Eucharist forgives venial sins.[106] Because the Church respects their celebration of the Mass as a true sacrament, intercommunion with the Eastern Orthodox in "suitable circumstances and with Church authority" is both possible and encouraged.[107] Although the same is not true for Protestant churches, in circumstances of grave necessity, Catholic ministers may give the sacraments of Eucharist, Penance and Anointing of the Sick to Protestants if they ask for them of their own will, give evidence of holding the Catholic faith regarding these sacraments, and possess the required dispositions.[107]
The Latin rite Catholic liturgical year follows key events in the life of Jesus. It begins with Advent, the time of preparation for both the celebration of Jesus' birth, and his expected second coming at the end of time. Christmas follows, beginning on the night of 24 December, Christmas Eve, and ending with the feast of the baptism of Jesus on 13 January. Lent is the 40-day period of purification and penance that begins on Ash Wednesday and ends on Holy Thursday. The Holy Thursday evening Mass of the Lord's Supper marks the beginning of the Easter Triduum which includes Good Friday, Holy Saturday and Easter Sunday. These days recall Jesus' last supper with his disciples, death on the cross, burial and resurrection. The seven week liturgical season of Easter immediately follows the Triduum climaxing at Pentecost. This recalls the descent of the Holy Spirit upon Jesus' disciples after the Ascension of Jesus. The rest of the liturgical year is known as Ordinary Time.[108]
Liturgy of the Hours
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The Liturgy of the Hours or Divine Office, is the official daily liturgical prayer of the Church.[109] It makes particular use of the Psalms as well as readings from the New and Old Testament, and various prayers.[109] It is an adaptation of the ancient Jewish practice of praying the Psalms at certain hours of the day or night. Catholics who pray the Liturgy of the Hours use a set of books issued by the Church called a breviary. By canon law, priests and deacons are required to pray the Liturgy of the Hours each day.[110] Religious orders often make praying the Liturgy of the Hours a part of their rule of life; the Second Vatican Council encouraged the Christian laity to take up the practice.[111][109]
Devotional life and personal prayer
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In addition to the Mass, the Catholic Church considers personal and communal prayer to be one of the most important elements of Christian life. In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus instructs his disciples to "pray always".[112] The Church considers personal prayer a Christian duty, one of the spiritual works of mercy and principal ways its members nourish a relationship with God.[113] The Catechism identifies three types of prayer: vocal prayer (sung or spoken), meditation, and contemplative prayer. Quoting from the early church father John Chrysostom regarding vocal prayer, the Catechism states, "whether or not our prayer is heard depends not on the number of words, but on the fervor of our souls".[114] Meditation is prayer where the "mind seeks to understand the why and how of Christian life, in order to adhere and respond to what the Lord is asking".[114] Contemplative prayer is being with God, taking time to be close to and alone with him.[114] Two of the core prayers of the Catholic Church are the Rosary and Stations of the Cross.[115] These prayers are most often vocal, yet always meditative and contemplative. Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament is a common form of contemplative prayer, whereas Benediction is a common vocal method of prayer. Lectio divina which means "sacred reading" is a form of meditative prayer. The Church encourages patterns of prayer intended to develop into habitual prayer. This includes such daily prayers as grace at meals, the Rosary, or the Liturgy of the Hours, as well as the weekly rhythm of Sunday Eucharist and the observation of the year-long liturgical cycle.[114]
Prayers and devotions to Mary and the saints are a common part of Catholic life but are distinct from the worship of God.[116] The Church teaches that the saints "do not cease to intercede with the Father for us ... so by their fraternal concern is our weakness greatly helped".[116][82] Catholics hold the Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus in special regard. She is believed to have been born without the stain of original sin, a doctrine considered infallible and termed the Immaculate Conception. She is honored with many loving titles such as "Blessed Mother", and "Mother of God". She is considered to be a spiritual mother to each believer of Christ.[117] Because of her influential role in the life of Jesus, prayers and devotions asking for her intercession, such as the Rosary, the Hail Mary and the Memorare are common Catholic practices.[115] The Church devotes several liturgical feasts to Mary throughout the Church year and pilgrimages to Marian shrines such as Lourdes, France and Fátima, Portugal are a common form of devotion.[118]
Church organization and community
The spiritual head and leader of the Catholic Church on earth is the pope. He governs from Vatican City in Rome, a sovereign state of which he is also the Head of State.[119] He is elected by the College of Cardinals, composed of bishops or priests who have been granted special status by the pope to serve as his advisors.[120] They may theoretically select any male member of the Church, but that person must be ordained as a bishop before taking office. The Church community is governed according to the Code of Canon Law. The Roman Curia assists the pope in the administration of the Church. Although the official language of the Church is Latin, Italian is the working language.[121]
The basic administrative unit of the Catholic Church is the diocese. There are more than 2,500 Catholic dioceses in the world, each of which is led by a bishop. Every diocese is further divided into individual communities called parishes, which are usually staffed by at least one priest.
The worldwide Church community is made up of ordained members and the laity. Members of religious orders such as nuns, friars and monks are considered lay members unless individually ordained as priests.[122]
Ordained members and Holy Orders
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Priestly Ordination, a popular depiction of Catholic ordination from the 1920s
Lay men become ordained through the sacrament of Holy Orders, and form a three-part hierarchy of bishops, priests and deacons. As a body the College of Bishops are considered to be the successors of the apostles.[123][124] Along with the pope, the College includes all the cardinals, patriarchs, primates, archbishops and metropolitans of the Church. Only bishops are allowed to perform the sacraments of Holy Orders and Confirmation.[125] While bishops are responsible for teaching, governing and sanctifying the faithful of their diocese, priests and deacons have these same responsibilities at a more local level, the parish, subordinate to the ministry of the bishop. Priests, bishops and deacons preach, teach, baptize, witness marriages, and conduct wake and funeral services, but only priests and bishops may administer the sacraments of the Eucharist, Penance, and Anointing of the Sick.[126]
Although deacons may be married, only celibate men are ordained as priests in the Latin Rite.[127][128] Clergy who have converted from other denominations are sometimes excepted from this rule.[129] The Eastern Catholic Churches ordain both celibate and married men.[130][131] All rites of the Catholic Church maintain the ancient tradition that, after ordination, marriage is not allowed. Men with transitory homosexual leanings may be ordained deacons following three years of prayer and chastity, but men with deeply rooted homosexual tendencies who are sexually active cannot be ordained.[132]
All programs for the formation of men to the Catholic priesthood are governed by Canon Law.[133] They are designed by national bishops' conferences such as the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops and vary slightly from country to country. The conferences consult Vatican documents such as Pastores Dabo Vobis, Novo Millennio Ineunte, Optatam Totius, and others to create these programs.[134] In some countries, priests are required to have a college degree plus another four years of full time theological study in a seminary or other approved institution. In other countries a degree is not strictly required, but seminary education is longer. Candidates for the priesthood are also evaluated in terms of human, spiritual and pastoral formation.[135] The sacrament of Holy Orders is always conferred by a bishop through the laying-on of hands, following which the newly ordained priest is formally clothed in his priestly vestments.[125]
Because the Twelve Apostles chosen by Jesus were all male, only men may be ordained in the Catholic Church.[136] The Church teaches that women have different yet equally important roles in Church ministry.[137] In Pope John Paul II's apostolic letter Christifidelis Laici, he states that women were equally called to be disciples of Jesus who were given tasks connected to spreading the Gospel.[138] Throughout history women have held prominent roles within the Church as Abbesses, missionaries, and Doctors of the Church.
Lay members, Marriage
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The laity consists of all those Catholics who are not ordained clergy. Saint Paul compares the diversity of roles in the Church to the different parts of a body—all being equally important to enable the body to function properly.[8] Lay members are equally called to live according to Christian principles, work to spread the message of Jesus, and effect change in the world for the good of others. The Church calls these actions participation in Christ's priestly, prophetic and royal offices.[139]
Marriage, the single life, and the consecrated life are all lay vocations. The sacrament of Holy Matrimony is the only sacrament not actually conferred by a priest or bishop. The couple desiring marriage are themselves the ministers of the sacrament while the priest or deacon serves as witness.[125] Church law makes no provision for divorce but annulments may be requested in strictly defined circumstances. Since the Church condemns all forms of artificial birth control, married persons are expected to be open to new life in their sexual relations.[140] Natural family planning is approved.
Tertiaries are laypersons who live according to the third rule of orders such as the Franciscans or Carmelites, either within a religious community or outside.[141] Although all tertiaries make a public profession, participate in the good works of their order and can wear the habit, they are not bound by public vows unless they live in community. Lay ecclesial movements consist of lay Catholics organized for purposes of teaching the faith, cultural work, mutual support or missionary work.[141] Such groups include: Communion and Liberation, Neocatechumenal Way, Regnum Christi, Opus Dei, Life Teen and many others.[141]
Some non-ordained Catholics practice formal, public ministries within the Church.[142] These are called lay ecclesial ministers, a broad category which may include pastoral life coordinators, pastoral assistants, youth ministers, and campus ministers.
Members of religious orders
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Both the ordained and the laity may enter the religious or consecrated life—either as monks or nuns, if cloistered, or friars and sisters if not. A candidate takes vows confirming their desire to follow the three evangelical counsels of chastity, poverty and obedience.[143]
The majority of those wishing to enter the consecrated life join a religious institute (also referred to as a monastic or religious order). They follow a common rule such as the Rule of St Benedict, which includes the vows of poverty chastity and obedience, and agree to live under the leadership of a superior.[144][145] They usually live in community, although occasionally an individual is given permission to live as a hermit, or to reside elsewhere, for example as a serving priest or chaplain.[146] Examples of religious institutes include the Sisters of Charity, Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, Cistercians, Marist Brothers, Paulist Fathers and the Society of Jesus, but there are many others.[143] The Church recognizes several other forms of consecrated life, including secular institutes, societies of apostolic life, and consecrated widows and widowers.[143] It also makes provision for the approval of new forms.[147]
Demographics
- Further information: Roman Catholicism by country
The Catholic Church is the largest Christian church, encompassing over half of all Christians, and is the largest organized body of any world religion.[4][148] Church membership exceeds 1.131 billion people.[149] While the number of practicing Catholics worldwide is not reliably known,[150] membership is growing particularly in Africa and Asia.[3] Some parts of Europe, Ireland and the United States have experienced a priest shortage in recent years as the number of priests has not increased in proportion to the number of Catholics.[151] As of 2005, Brazil had the greatest number of Catholics.[150] The worldwide Catholic Church is made up of one Western or Latin and 22 Eastern Catholic autonomous particular churches. The Latin Church is divided into jurisdictional areas called dioceses, known as eparchies in the Eastern Church. Each diocese or eparchy is headed by a bishop, patriarch or eparch who is appointed by the pope. At the end of 2006, counting both dioceses and eparchies, there were 2,782 sees.[5]
Membership
According to canon law, one becomes a member of the Catholic Church by being baptized in the Church.[152] Christians baptized outside of the Church or those never baptized may be received by participating in a formation program such as the Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults.[153] Formation programs may include the reception of the sacrament of Penance and are regulated by the diocesan bishop.[154] In all rites, after going through formation and making a profession of faith, candidates receive the sacraments of initiation at the Easter vigil on Holy Saturday.[153]
A person can excommunicate themselves or be excommunicated from membership in the Church by committing certain particularly grave sins.[155][156] Examples include violating the seal of confession (committed when a priest discloses the sins heard in the sacrament of Penance), persisting in heresy, creating schism, becoming an apostate, or having an abortion.[157] Throwing away the sacramental bread and wine received during the Eucharist or taking or retaining them for a sacrilegious purpose are also considered excommunicable offenses.[158] Excommunication is the most severe ecclesiastical penalty because it prevents a person from validly receiving any Church sacrament. It can only be forgiven by the pope, the bishop of the diocese where the person resides, or priests authorized by him.[159] Among those who have been excommunicated or incurred excommunication are Arius, Henry VIII, Elizabeth I and members of the group Womenpriests.[160]
Church history
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- Further information: History of Christianity, History of Western civilization, and Criticism of the Catholic Church
Roman Empire
The Catholic Church considers Pentecost to be its moment of origin because this was the day when the apostles first emerged from hiding to publicly preach the message of Jesus after his death.[161] They traveled to various Jewish communities in northern Africa, Asia Minor, Arabia, Greece and Rome forming the first Christian communities.[161] By the year 100 more than 40 Christian communities existed in these areas.[162]
From the first century onward, the Church of Rome was respected as a doctrinal authority because the Apostles Peter and Paul had led the Church there.[163] The apostles had already convened the first Church council, the Council of Jerusalem, in or around the year 50 to reconcile doctrinal differences concerning the Gentile mission.[15] Although competing forms of Christianity emerged early and persisted into the fifth century, the Roman Church retained the practice of meeting in ecumenical councils to ensure that any doctrinal differences were quickly resolved.[16]
In the first few centuries of its existence, the Church defined and formed its teachings and traditions into a systematic whole under the influence of theological apologists such as Pope Clement I, Ignatius of Antioch, Justin Martyr, and Augustine of Hippo.[164] Because early Christians refused to offer sacrifices to the Roman gods or to defer to Roman rulers as gods, they were frequently subject to persecution. .[165] The ferocity or absence of the persecution varied depending upon the policies of the emperor in question. Persecution began under Nero in the first century, and by the mid-third century it was extensive throughout the empire, culminating in the great persecution of Diocletian and Galerius at the beginning of the fourth century, which was seen as a final attempt to wipe out Christianity. .[166] In spite of these persecutions evangelization efforts persisted, leading to the Edict of Milan which legalized Christianity in 313. A church administration was soon re-established.[167]
In 325 the First Council of Nicaea was convened in response to the Arian challenge concerning the trinitarian nature of God. The council formulated the Nicene Creed as a basic statement of Christian belief.[168] During the reign of Pope Sylvester I, Emperor Constantine I commissioned the first Basilica of St. Peter, as well as the Lateran, a papal residence and several other sites of lasting importance to Christianity.[169] Many standard Christian practices had been established by the end of Constantine's life including the observation of Sunday as the official day of worship, the use of the altar as the focal point of each church, the sign of the cross, and the liturgical calendar.[170] By 380, Christianity became the official religion of the Empire.[171]
Over subsequent decades a series of ecumenical christological councils formally codified critical elements of the theology of the Church. The Council of Rome in 382 set the Biblical canon, listing the accepted books of the Old and New Testament, and in 391 the Vulgate Latin translation of the Bible was made.[172] The Council of Ephesus in 431 clarified the nature of Jesus' incarnation, declaring that he was both fully man and fully God.[173] However Monophysite disagreements over the precise nature of the incarnation of Jesus led to the first of the various Oriental Orthodox Churches breaking away from the Catholic Church in 451.
Early Middle Ages
- Further information: Middle Ages and Christian monasticism
After the final fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, the Catholic faith competed with Arianism for the conversion of the barbarian tribes.[174] The conversion of Clovis I, pagan king of the Franks in 496 marked the beginning of the steady rise of the faith in the West.[175] In 530, Saint Benedict wrote his Rule of St Benedict as a practical guide for monastic community life. Its message soon spread to monasteries throughout Europe.[176] Monasteries became major conduits of civilization, preserving craft and artistic skills while maintaining intellectual culture within their schools, scriptoriums and libraries. They were also agricultural, economic and production centers as well as a focus for spiritual life.[177] As a result, the Church soon saw the conversion of the Visigoths and Lombards who were abandoning Arianism for Catholicism.[175] Pope Gregory the Great, who played a notable role in these conversions, dramatically reformed ecclesiastical structure and administration, which then launched a renewed missionary effort.[178] Subsequently, missionaries such as Augustine of Canterbury, Saint Boniface, Willibrord and Ansgar took Christianity into northern Europe, allowing Catholicism to spread among the Germanic peoples, the Irish and the Slavic peoples, reaching the Vikings and other Scandinavians in subsequent centuries.[179]
In the early 700s, iconoclasm became the source of conflict between the Eastern and Western churches. Under the direction of the Byzantine Emperors, Iconoclasts forbade the creation and veneration of images, claiming this to be a violation of one of the Ten Commandments. Iconodules, backed by the Pope and the Western Church, disagreed with this interpretation.[180] The dispute was resolved in 787 when the Second Council of Nicaea ruled in favor of icons.[181] Afterward, the Church ushered in the Carolingian Renaissance when the pope crowned Charlemagne Holy Roman Emperor in 800, partially in response to the dispute over iconoclasm. Charlemagne attempted to create an international unity through the common bond of Christianity. Although this resulted in many reforms including the creation of an improved system of education and unified laws, it also created a problem for the Church when succeeding emperors sought to appoint future popes.[182] In 858 disagreements between the Eastern and Western churches arose again when Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople, favored by the pope, was deposed in favor of the more extreme Photios.[183] The pope refused to recognize Photios, declared his election invalid and excommunicated him. Although Rome eventually approved his election, the dispute added to the growing alienation between the churches.[180]
High Middle Ages
- Further information: High Middle Ages
The Cluniac reform of monasteries that began in 910 placed abbots under the direct control of the pope rather than the secular control of feudal lords, eliminating a major source of corruption. This sparked a great monastic renewal.[184] Monasteries, convents, and cathedrals still operated virtually all schools and libraries.[185] After 1100, some older cathedral schools split into lower grammar schools and higher schools for advanced learning. First in Bologna, then at Paris and Oxford, many of these higher schools developed into universities and became the direct ancestors of modern Western institutions of learning.[186][187] Monastic contributions to western society included the teaching of metallurgy, the introduction of new crops, the invention of musical notation, and the creation and preservation of literature.[186]
During the 11th century Christianity was permanently divided as a result of the East–West schism.[20] A dispute over whether Constantinople or Rome held jurisdiction over the church in Sicily led to mutual excommunications in 1054. The Western (Latin) branch of Christianity has since become known as the Catholic Church, while the Eastern (Greek) branch became known as the Orthodox Church.[188]</ |
