The means by which we distinguish one emotion from another is a hotly contested issue in emotion research and affective science. This page summarises some of the major theories.

Basic and Complex Emotions

Many theorists define some emotions as basic where others are complex. Basic emotions are claimed to be biologically fixed, innate and as a result universal to all humans and many animals as well. Complex emotions are then either refined versions of basic emotions, culturally specific or idiosyncratic. A major issue is then to define which emotions are basic and which are complex.

One of the problems here is that there is no consensus on the method by which basic emotions can be determined. Theorists can point to universals in facial expression (e.g. Ekman), distinctive physiological symptoms (e.g. the blush of embarrassment), or labels common to different languages. Moreover there should be some plausible developmental story concerning how the various non-basic emotions can be grounded in the basic ones.

Ekman's original list: Anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise.

Ekman (1999): Amusement, anger, contempt, contentment, disgust, embarrassment, excitement, fear, guilt, pride in achievement, relief, sadness/distress, satisfaction, sensory pleasure and shame.

Prinz (2004): Frustration, panic, anxiety, physical disgust, separation distress, aversive self-consciousness, satisfaction, stimulation and attachment.^[1]

Social Emotions

Emotions can also be classified according to those that can occur when the individual is alone and not thinking about others, and those which seem more essentially socially directed. Examples of proposed social emotions include jealousy, love, hatred, guilt and gratitude.

Dimensional Models of Emotion

For both theoretical and practical reasons some researchers define emotions according to one or more dimensions. A popular version of this is Russell's (1979) dimensional, or circumplex model which uses the models of arousal and valence. other dimensions have more recently been suggested, for example 'potency' or power.

Plutchik's Model

Robert Plutchik offers a three-dimensional circumplex model which is a hybrid of both basic-complex categories and dimensional theories. It arranges emotions in concentric circles where inner circles are more basic and outer circles more complex. Notably outer circles are also formed by blending the inner circle emotions.[1]

Bibliography

• Ekman, P. (1992). An argument for basic emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 6, 169-200.
• Ekman, P. (1999). Basic Emotions. In T. Dalgleish and T. Power (Eds.) The Handbook of Cognition and Emotion Pp. 45-60. Sussex, U.K.: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
• Fontaine, J. et al. (2007). The world of emotions is not two-dimensional. Psychological Science, 18(12), 1050-1057.
• Russell, J.A. (1979). Affective space is bipolar. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 345-356.

Notes and References